Cytokines from parasites: manipulating host responses by molecular mimicry

Helminth parasites have evolved sophisticated methods for manipulating the host immune response to ensure long-term survival in their chosen niche, for example, by secreting products that interfere with the host cytokine network. Studies on the secretions of Heligmosomoides polygyrus have identified a family of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) mimics (TGMs), which bear no primary amino acid sequence similarity to mammalian TGF-β, but functionally replicate or antagonise TGF-β effects in restricted cell types. The prototypic member, TGM1, induces in vitro differentiation of Foxp3⁺ T regulatory cells and attenuates airway allergic and intestinal inflammation in animal models. TGM1 is one of a family of ten TGM proteins expressed by H. polygyrus. It is a five-domain modular protein in which domains 1–2 bind TGFBR1, and domain 3 binds TGFBR2; domains 4–5 increase its potency by binding a co-receptor, CD44, highly expressed on immune cells. Domains 4–5 are more diverse in other TGMs, which bind co-receptors on cells such as fibroblasts. One variant, TGM6, lacks domains 1–2 and hence cannot transduce a signal but binds TGFBR2 through domain 3 and a co-receptor expressed on fibroblasts through domains 4–5 and blocks TGF-β signalling in fibroblasts and epithelial cells; T cells do not express the co-receptor and are not inhibited by TGM6. Hence, different family members have evolved to act as agonists or antagonists on various cell types. TGMs, which function by molecularly mimicking binding of the host cytokine to the host TGF-β receptors, are examples of highly evolved immunomodulators from parasites, including those that block interleukin (IL)-13 and IL-33 signalling, modulate macrophage and dendritic cell responses and modify host cell metabolism. The emerging panoply and potency of helminth evasion molecules illustrates the range of strategies in play to maintain long-term infections in the mammalian host.